prometheus/storage/remote/write_handler.go

// Copyright 2021 The Prometheus Authors
// Licensed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 (the "License");
// you may not use this file except in compliance with the License.
// You may obtain a copy of the License at
//
// http://www.apache.org/licenses/LICENSE-2.0
//
// Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
// distributed under the License is distributed on an "AS IS" BASIS,
// WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
// See the License for the specific language governing permissions and
// limitations under the License.

package remote

import (
	"context"
	"errors"
	"fmt"
	"io"
	"net/http"
	"strings"
	"time"

	"github.com/go-kit/log"
	"github.com/go-kit/log/level"
	"github.com/gogo/protobuf/proto"
	"github.com/golang/snappy"
	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus"
	"github.com/prometheus/client_golang/prometheus/promauto"
	"github.com/prometheus/common/model"

	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/config"
	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/exemplar"
	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/histogram"
	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/labels"
	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/model/timestamp"
	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb"
	writev2 "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/prompb/io/prometheus/write/v2"
	"github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage"
	otlptranslator "github.com/prometheus/prometheus/storage/remote/otlptranslator/prometheusremotewrite"
)

type writeHandler struct {
	logger     log.Logger
	appendable storage.Appendable

	samplesWithInvalidLabelsTotal  prometheus.Counter
	samplesAppendedWithoutMetadata prometheus.Counter

	acceptedProtoMsgs map[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg]struct{}
}

const maxAheadTime = 10 * time.Minute

// NewWriteHandler creates a http.Handler that accepts remote write requests with
// the given message in acceptedProtoMsgs and writes them to the provided appendable.
//
// NOTE(bwplotka): When accepting v2 proto and spec, partial writes are possible
// as per https://prometheus.io/docs/specs/remote_write_spec_2_0/#partial-write.
func NewWriteHandler(logger log.Logger, reg prometheus.Registerer, appendable storage.Appendable, acceptedProtoMsgs []config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg) http.Handler {
	protoMsgs := map[config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg]struct{}{}
	for _, acc := range acceptedProtoMsgs {
		protoMsgs[acc] = struct{}{}
	}
	h := &writeHandler{
		logger:            logger,
		appendable:        appendable,
		acceptedProtoMsgs: protoMsgs,
		samplesWithInvalidLabelsTotal: promauto.With(reg).NewCounter(prometheus.CounterOpts{
			Namespace: "prometheus",
			Subsystem: "api",
			Name:      "remote_write_invalid_labels_samples_total",
			Help:      "The total number of received remote write samples and histogram samples which were rejected due to invalid labels.",
		}),
		samplesAppendedWithoutMetadata: promauto.With(reg).NewCounter(prometheus.CounterOpts{
			Namespace: "prometheus",
			Subsystem: "api",
			Name:      "remote_write_without_metadata_appended_samples_total",
			Help:      "The total number of received remote write samples (and histogram samples) which were ingested without corresponding metadata.",
		}),
	}
	return h
}

func (h *writeHandler) parseProtoMsg(contentType string) (config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg, error) {
	contentType = strings.TrimSpace(contentType)

	parts := strings.Split(contentType, ";")
	if parts[0] != appProtoContentType {
		return "", fmt.Errorf("expected %v as the first (media) part, got %v content-type", appProtoContentType, contentType)
	}
	// Parse potential https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9110#parameter
	for _, p := range parts[1:] {
		pair := strings.Split(p, "=")
		if len(pair) != 2 {
			return "", fmt.Errorf("as per https://www.rfc-editor.org/rfc/rfc9110#parameter expected parameters to be key-values, got %v in %v content-type", p, contentType)
		}
		if pair[0] == "proto" {
			ret := config.RemoteWriteProtoMsg(pair[1])
			if err := ret.Validate(); err != nil {
				return "", fmt.Errorf("got %v content type; %w", contentType, err)
			}
			return ret, nil
		}
	}
	// No "proto=" parameter, assuming v1.
	return config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1, nil
}

func (h *writeHandler) ServeHTTP(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
	contentType := r.Header.Get("Content-Type")
	if contentType == "" {
		// Don't break yolo 1.0 clients if not needed. This is similar to what we did
		// before 2.0: https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/d78253319daa62c8f28ed47e40bafcad2dd8b586/storage/remote/write_handler.go#L62
		// We could give http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType, but let's assume 1.0 message by default.
		contentType = appProtoContentType
	}

	msgType, err := h.parseProtoMsg(contentType)
	if err != nil {
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err)
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
		return
	}

	if _, ok := h.acceptedProtoMsgs[msgType]; !ok {
		err := fmt.Errorf("%v protobuf message is not accepted by this server; accepted %v", msgType, func() (ret []string) {
			for k := range h.acceptedProtoMsgs {
				ret = append(ret, string(k))
			}
			return ret
		}())
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err)
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
	}

	enc := r.Header.Get("Content-Encoding")
	if enc == "" {
		// Don't break yolo 1.0 clients if not needed. This is similar to what we did
		// before 2.0: https://github.com/prometheus/prometheus/blob/d78253319daa62c8f28ed47e40bafcad2dd8b586/storage/remote/write_handler.go#L62
		// We could give http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType, but let's assume snappy by default.
	} else if enc != string(SnappyBlockCompression) {
		err := fmt.Errorf("%v encoding (compression) is not accepted by this server; only %v is acceptable", enc, SnappyBlockCompression)
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err)
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusUnsupportedMediaType)
	}

	// Read the request body.
	body, err := io.ReadAll(r.Body)
	if err != nil {
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err.Error())
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
		return
	}

	decompressed, err := snappy.Decode(nil, body)
	if err != nil {
		// TODO(bwplotka): Add more context to responded error?
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decompressing remote write request", "err", err.Error())
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
		return
	}

	// Now we have a decompressed buffer we can unmarshal it.

	if msgType == config.RemoteWriteProtoMsgV1 {
		// PRW 1.0 flow has different proto message and no partial write handling.
		var req prompb.WriteRequest
		if err := proto.Unmarshal(decompressed, &req); err != nil {
			// TODO(bwplotka): Add more context to responded error?
			level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding v1 remote write request", "protobuf_message", msgType, "err", err.Error())
			http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
			return
		}
		if err = h.write(r.Context(), &req); err != nil {
			switch {
			case errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfBounds), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrTooOldSample):
				// Indicated an out-of-order sample is a bad request to prevent retries.
				http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
				return
			default:
				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error while remote writing the v1 request", "err", err.Error())
				http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusInternalServerError)
				return
			}
		}
		w.WriteHeader(http.StatusNoContent)
		return
	}

	// Remote Write 2.x proto message handling.
	var req writev2.Request
	if err := proto.Unmarshal(decompressed, &req); err != nil {
		// TODO(bwplotka): Add more context to responded error?
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding v2 remote write request", "protobuf_message", msgType, "err", err.Error())
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
		return
	}

	respStats, errHTTPCode, err := h.writeV2(r.Context(), &req)

	// Set required X-Prometheus-Remote-Write-Written-* response headers, in all cases.
	respStats.SetHeaders(w)

	if err != nil {
		if errHTTPCode/5 == 100 { // 5xx
			level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error while remote writing the v2 request", "err", err.Error())
		}
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), errHTTPCode)
		return
	}
	w.WriteHeader(http.StatusNoContent)
}

func (h *writeHandler) write(ctx context.Context, req *prompb.WriteRequest) (err error) {
	outOfOrderExemplarErrs := 0
	samplesWithInvalidLabels := 0
	samplesAppended := 0

	app := &timeLimitAppender{
		Appender: h.appendable.Appender(ctx),
		maxTime:  timestamp.FromTime(time.Now().Add(maxAheadTime)),
	}

	defer func() {
		if err != nil {
			_ = app.Rollback()
			return
		}
		err = app.Commit()
		if err != nil {
			h.samplesAppendedWithoutMetadata.Add(float64(samplesAppended))
		}
	}()

	b := labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
	for _, ts := range req.Timeseries {
		ls := ts.ToLabels(&b, nil)

		// TODO(bwplotka): Even as per 1.0 spec, this should be a 400 error, while other samples are
		// potentially written. Perhaps unify with fixed writeV2 implementation a bit.
		if !ls.Has(labels.MetricName) || !ls.IsValid(model.NameValidationScheme) {
			level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Invalid metric names or labels", "got", ls.String())
			samplesWithInvalidLabels++
			continue
		} else if duplicateLabel, hasDuplicate := ls.HasDuplicateLabelNames(); hasDuplicate {
			level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Invalid labels for series.", "labels", ls.String(), "duplicated_label", duplicateLabel)
			samplesWithInvalidLabels++
			continue
		}

		if err := h.appendV1Samples(app, ts.Samples, ls); err != nil {
			return err
		}
		samplesAppended += len(ts.Samples)

		for _, ep := range ts.Exemplars {
			e := ep.ToExemplar(&b, nil)
			if _, err := app.AppendExemplar(0, ls, e); err != nil {
				switch {
				case errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderExemplar):
					outOfOrderExemplarErrs++
					level.Debug(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order exemplar", "series", ls.String(), "exemplar", fmt.Sprintf("%+v", e))
				default:
					// Since exemplar storage is still experimental, we don't fail the request on ingestion errors
					level.Debug(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error while adding exemplar in AppendExemplar", "series", ls.String(), "exemplar", fmt.Sprintf("%+v", e), "err", err)
				}
			}
		}

		if err = h.appendV1Histograms(app, ts.Histograms, ls); err != nil {
			return err
		}
		samplesAppended += len(ts.Histograms)
	}

	if outOfOrderExemplarErrs > 0 {
		_ = level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error on ingesting out-of-order exemplars", "num_dropped", outOfOrderExemplarErrs)
	}
	if samplesWithInvalidLabels > 0 {
		h.samplesWithInvalidLabelsTotal.Add(float64(samplesWithInvalidLabels))
	}
	return nil
}

func (h *writeHandler) appendV1Samples(app storage.Appender, ss []prompb.Sample, labels labels.Labels) error {
	var ref storage.SeriesRef
	var err error
	for _, s := range ss {
		ref, err = app.Append(ref, labels, s.GetTimestamp(), s.GetValue())
		if err != nil {
			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order sample from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", s.Timestamp)
			}
			return err
		}
	}
	return nil
}

func (h *writeHandler) appendV1Histograms(app storage.Appender, hh []prompb.Histogram, labels labels.Labels) error {
	var err error
	for _, hp := range hh {
		if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
			_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, nil, hp.ToFloatHistogram())
		} else {
			_, err = app.AppendHistogram(0, labels, hp.Timestamp, hp.ToIntHistogram(), nil)
		}
		if err != nil {
			// Although AppendHistogram does not currently return ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp there is
			// a note indicating its inclusion in the future.
			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order histogram from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", labels.String(), "timestamp", hp.Timestamp)
			}
			return err
		}
	}
	return nil
}

// writeV2 is similar to write, but it works with v2 proto message,
// allows partial 4xx writes and gathers statistics.
//
// writeV2 returns the statistics.
// In error cases, writeV2, also returns statistics, but also the error that
// should be propagated to the remote write sender and httpCode to use for status.
//
// NOTE(bwplotka): TSDB storage is NOT idempotent, so we don't allow "partial retry-able" errors.
// Once we have 5xx type of error, we immediately stop and rollback all appends.
func (h *writeHandler) writeV2(ctx context.Context, req *writev2.Request) (_ WriteResponseStats, errHTTPCode int, _ error) {
	app := &timeLimitAppender{
		Appender: h.appendable.Appender(ctx),
		maxTime:  timestamp.FromTime(time.Now().Add(maxAheadTime)),
	}

	s := WriteResponseStats{}
	samplesWithoutMetadata, errHTTPCode, err := h.appendV2(app, req, &s)
	if err != nil {
		if errHTTPCode/5 == 100 {
			// On 5xx, we always rollback, because we expect
			// sender to retry and TSDB is not idempotent.
			if rerr := app.Rollback(); rerr != nil {
				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "writev2 rollback failed on retry-able error", "err", rerr)
			}
			return WriteResponseStats{}, errHTTPCode, err
		}

		// Non-retriable (e.g. bad request error case). Can be partially written.
		commitErr := app.Commit()
		if commitErr != nil {
			// Bad requests does not matter as we have internal error (retryable).
			return WriteResponseStats{}, http.StatusInternalServerError, commitErr
		}
		// Bad request error happened, but rest of data (if any) was written.
		h.samplesAppendedWithoutMetadata.Add(float64(samplesWithoutMetadata))
		return s, errHTTPCode, err
	}

	// All good just commit.
	if err := app.Commit(); err != nil {
		return WriteResponseStats{}, http.StatusInternalServerError, err
	}
	h.samplesAppendedWithoutMetadata.Add(float64(samplesWithoutMetadata))
	return s, 0, nil
}

func (h *writeHandler) appendV2(app storage.Appender, req *writev2.Request, rs *WriteResponseStats) (samplesWithoutMetadata, errHTTPCode int, err error) {
	var (
		badRequestErrs                                   []error
		outOfOrderExemplarErrs, samplesWithInvalidLabels int

		b = labels.NewScratchBuilder(0)
	)
	for _, ts := range req.Timeseries {
		ls := ts.ToLabels(&b, req.Symbols)
		// Validate series labels early.
		// NOTE(bwplotka): While spec allows UTF-8, Prometheus Receiver may impose
		// specific limits and follow https://prometheus.io/docs/specs/remote_write_spec_2_0/#invalid-samples case.
		if !ls.Has(labels.MetricName) || !ls.IsValid(model.NameValidationScheme) {
			badRequestErrs = append(badRequestErrs, fmt.Errorf("invalid metric name or labels, got %v", ls.String()))
			samplesWithInvalidLabels += len(ts.Samples) + len(ts.Histograms)
			continue
		} else if duplicateLabel, hasDuplicate := ls.HasDuplicateLabelNames(); hasDuplicate {
			badRequestErrs = append(badRequestErrs, fmt.Errorf("invalid labels for series, labels %v, duplicated label %s", ls.String(), duplicateLabel))
			samplesWithInvalidLabels += len(ts.Samples) + len(ts.Histograms)
			continue
		}

		allSamplesSoFar := rs.AllSamples()
		var ref storage.SeriesRef

		// Samples.
		for _, s := range ts.Samples {
			ref, err = app.Append(ref, ls, s.GetTimestamp(), s.GetValue())
			if err == nil {
				rs.Samples++
				continue
			}
			// Handle append error.
			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrTooOldSample) {
				// TODO(bwplotka): Not too spammy log?
				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order sample from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", ls.String(), "timestamp", s.Timestamp)
				badRequestErrs = append(badRequestErrs, fmt.Errorf("%w for series %v", err, ls.String()))
				continue
			}
			return 0, http.StatusInternalServerError, err
		}

		// Native Histograms.
		for _, hp := range ts.Histograms {
			if hp.IsFloatHistogram() {
				ref, err = app.AppendHistogram(ref, ls, hp.Timestamp, nil, hp.ToFloatHistogram())
			} else {
				ref, err = app.AppendHistogram(ref, ls, hp.Timestamp, hp.ToIntHistogram(), nil)
			}
			if err == nil {
				rs.Histograms++
				continue
			}
			// Handle append error.
			// Although AppendHistogram does not currently return ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp there is
			// a note indicating its inclusion in the future.
			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfBounds) ||
				errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp) {
				// TODO(bwplotka): Not too spammy log?
				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order histogram from remote write", "err", err.Error(), "series", ls.String(), "timestamp", hp.Timestamp)
				badRequestErrs = append(badRequestErrs, fmt.Errorf("%w for series %v", err, ls.String()))
				continue
			}
			return 0, http.StatusInternalServerError, err
		}

		// Exemplars.
		for _, ep := range ts.Exemplars {
			e := ep.ToExemplar(&b, req.Symbols)
			ref, err = app.AppendExemplar(ref, ls, e)
			if err == nil {
				rs.Exemplars++
				continue
			}
			// Handle append error.
			if errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderExemplar) {
				outOfOrderExemplarErrs++ // Maintain old metrics, but technically not needed, given we fail here.
				level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Out of order exemplar", "err", err.Error(), "series", ls.String(), "exemplar", fmt.Sprintf("%+v", e))
				badRequestErrs = append(badRequestErrs, fmt.Errorf("%w for series %v", err, ls.String()))
				continue
			}
			// TODO(bwplotka): Add strict mode which would trigger rollback of everything if needed.
			// For now we keep the previously released flow (just error not debug leve) of dropping them without rollback and 5xx.
			level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "failed to ingest exemplar, emitting error log, but no error for PRW caller", "err", err.Error(), "series", ls.String(), "exemplar", fmt.Sprintf("%+v", e))
		}

		m := ts.ToMetadata(req.Symbols)
		if _, err = app.UpdateMetadata(ref, ls, m); err != nil {
			level.Debug(h.logger).Log("msg", "error while updating metadata from remote write", "err", err)
			// Metadata is attached to each series, so since Prometheus does not reject sample without metadata information,
			// we don't report remote write error either. We increment metric instead.
			samplesWithoutMetadata += rs.AllSamples() - allSamplesSoFar
		}
	}

	if outOfOrderExemplarErrs > 0 {
		level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error on ingesting out-of-order exemplars", "num_dropped", outOfOrderExemplarErrs)
	}
	h.samplesWithInvalidLabelsTotal.Add(float64(samplesWithInvalidLabels))

	if len(badRequestErrs) == 0 {
		return samplesWithoutMetadata, 0, nil
	}
	// TODO(bwplotka): Better concat formatting? Perhaps add size limit?
	return samplesWithoutMetadata, http.StatusBadRequest, errors.Join(badRequestErrs...)
}

// NewOTLPWriteHandler creates a http.Handler that accepts OTLP write requests and
// writes them to the provided appendable.
func NewOTLPWriteHandler(logger log.Logger, appendable storage.Appendable, configFunc func() config.Config) http.Handler {
	rwHandler := &writeHandler{
		logger:     logger,
		appendable: appendable,
	}

	return &otlpWriteHandler{
		logger:     logger,
		rwHandler:  rwHandler,
		configFunc: configFunc,
	}
}

type otlpWriteHandler struct {
	logger     log.Logger
	rwHandler  *writeHandler
	configFunc func() config.Config
}

func (h *otlpWriteHandler) ServeHTTP(w http.ResponseWriter, r *http.Request) {
	req, err := DecodeOTLPWriteRequest(r)
	if err != nil {
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error decoding remote write request", "err", err.Error())
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
		return
	}

	otlpCfg := h.configFunc().OTLPConfig

	converter := otlptranslator.NewPrometheusConverter()
	annots, err := converter.FromMetrics(r.Context(), req.Metrics(), otlptranslator.Settings{
		AddMetricSuffixes:         true,
		PromoteResourceAttributes: otlpCfg.PromoteResourceAttributes,
	})
	if err != nil {
		level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error translating OTLP metrics to Prometheus write request", "err", err)
	}
	ws, _ := annots.AsStrings("", 0, 0)
	if len(ws) > 0 {
		level.Warn(h.logger).Log("msg", "Warnings translating OTLP metrics to Prometheus write request", "warnings", ws)
	}

	err = h.rwHandler.write(r.Context(), &prompb.WriteRequest{
		Timeseries: converter.TimeSeries(),
	})

	switch {
	case err == nil:
	case errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfOrderSample), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrOutOfBounds), errors.Is(err, storage.ErrDuplicateSampleForTimestamp):
		// Indicated an out of order sample is a bad request to prevent retries.
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusBadRequest)
		return
	default:
		level.Error(h.logger).Log("msg", "Error appending remote write", "err", err.Error())
		http.Error(w, err.Error(), http.StatusInternalServerError)
		return
	}

	w.WriteHeader(http.StatusOK)
}

type timeLimitAppender struct {
	storage.Appender

	maxTime int64
}

func (app *timeLimitAppender) Append(ref storage.SeriesRef, lset labels.Labels, t int64, v float64) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
	if t > app.maxTime {
		return 0, fmt.Errorf("%w: timestamp is too far in the future", storage.ErrOutOfBounds)
	}

	ref, err := app.Appender.Append(ref, lset, t, v)
	if err != nil {
		return 0, err
	}
	return ref, nil
}

func (app *timeLimitAppender) AppendHistogram(ref storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, t int64, h *histogram.Histogram, fh *histogram.FloatHistogram) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
	if t > app.maxTime {
		return 0, fmt.Errorf("%w: timestamp is too far in the future", storage.ErrOutOfBounds)
	}

	ref, err := app.Appender.AppendHistogram(ref, l, t, h, fh)
	if err != nil {
		return 0, err
	}
	return ref, nil
}

func (app *timeLimitAppender) AppendExemplar(ref storage.SeriesRef, l labels.Labels, e exemplar.Exemplar) (storage.SeriesRef, error) {
	if e.Ts > app.maxTime {
		return 0, fmt.Errorf("%w: timestamp is too far in the future", storage.ErrOutOfBounds)
	}

	ref, err := app.Appender.AppendExemplar(ref, l, e)
	if err != nil {
		return 0, err
	}
	return ref, nil
}